Jacksonian Democrats Dbq

The election of 1828 is viewed by many as a revolution. Just as the French Revolution marked the end of aristocratic rule and the ascent of the lower classes, the election of Andrew Jackson as the seventh president of the United States likewise marked the end of the aristocratic â€Å"Virginia Dynasty† and the ascent of the common man. While Jackson was a hero of the people, having routed the British at the Battle of New Orleans and having clawed his way from poverty to wealth, he was elected primarily because his followers believed he stood for certain ideals. The Jacksonian Democrats were self-styled guardians of the United States Constitution, political democracy, individual liberty, and equality of economic opportunity. As a strict constitutional constructionist, Jackson indeed guarded what he considered the spirit of the constitution. This is borne out in his handling of South Carolina’s Nullification Crisis. By passing the â€Å"force bill,† Jackson made a statement that the position of John C. Calhoun and his home state was unconstitutional, and that he, as president, was prepared to back his ideals with force if necessary. Jackson further advanced his strict constructionist position through his handling of the â€Å"Bank War. † Nowhere in Article I, section 8 of the Constitution is the authority to create a national bank given to congress. By allowing Roger B. Taney to assist in withdrawing the federal treasury from the Bank of the U. S. and subsequently depositing the funds into regional â€Å"pet banks,† Jackson effectively disassembled what he viewed as a â€Å"monopoly of the foreign and domestic exchange† which was not â€Å"compatible with justice, with sound policy, or with the Constitution of our country. (B) Jackson’s position on the Bank of the United States also illustrates his commitment to political democracy. The Bank re-charter of 1832, though designed by Webster and Clay to embarrass Jackson publicly, backfired on the opponent Whigs. In his bank veto message of 1832, he pointed out the dangers of control of the institution by foreigners and the American mone y-elite. After all, Jackson noted, â€Å"[i]s there not danger to our liberty and independence in a bank that in its nature has so little to bind it to our country†? B) This grassroots commitment resulted in a surge in reform movements throughout the nation. The Working Men’s Party, for example, espoused the enlightenment philosophy of the Declaration of Independence in its belief that â€Å"all men are created equal. †(A) Harriet Martineau, a social observer, was indeed shocked at the absurdity of the debate â€Å"’whether the people should be encouraged to govern themselves, or whether the wise should save them from themselves. ’† Her amazement stemmed from the fact that she had observed â€Å"every man in the towns an independent citizen; every man in the country a landowner. (D) Political democracy, after all, had swept the nation. Just as his bank veto message had made apparent his support of political democracy, it also established Ja ckson as a champion of individual liberty; still, it must be made clear, that the only individuals who were beneficiaries of liberty were, in fact, white male â€Å"citizens. † The painting â€Å"The Trail of Tears† serves as a painful reminder of Jackson’s prejudiced policy of Indian Removal and the Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia cases. G) Ironically, Jackson’s reputation as a hero and champion of the people stems, in part, from his legendary Indian battles such as Horseshoe Bend and those with Chief Osceola and the Seminole nation. The Seneca Falls convention, while accomplishing little in the way of reform, sadly points out the inequity which existed for American women. Philip Hone, a member of the opposition party, the Whigs, points out the inequality of immigrants. He recorded in his diary â€Å"the disgraceful scene which commenced the warfare†¦. A band of Irishmen of the lowest class came out†¦armed with clubs, and commenced a savage attack upon all†¦. †(E) Perhaps the most tragic disgrace of all—the enslavement African Americans—is pointed out by the Acts and Resolutions of South Carolina. The legislature of South Carolina requested that federal laws be passed to make it illegal to print or distribute material which had the â€Å"tendency to excite the slaves of the southern states to insurrection and revolt. (F) The final ideal of which Jacksonian Democrats considered themselves champions was equality of economic opportunity. Jackson’s veto of the Bank Bill vividly illustrates this point. â€Å"It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes. †(B) While Daniel Webster, a Whig opponent, publicly denounced Jackson’s veto as â€Å"executive pretension,†Ã‚ © Jackson firmly believed â€Å"that great evils to our country and its institutions might flow from such a concentration of power in the hands of a few men irresponsible to the people. (B) Jacksonian commitment to equality of economic opportunity is further espoused in the opinion of Jackson’s Supreme Court appointee, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in the Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge case. While Jackson’s arch-nemesis John Marshall had cleared the way for competition in Gibbons v. Ogden, Taney pointed out in characteristic Jacksonian fashion, that charters, like the Constitution, must be interpreted strictly. â€Å"There is no exclusive privilege given to them over the waters of Charles River†¦. (H) Here, surely, is commitment to equal economic opportunity. So powerful was the figure Andrew Jackson that an entire era of American history bears his name. His administration marks a fundamental paradigm shift in American ideals. Despite his opponent’s branding him a tyrant and labeling him with suc h unflattering monikers as â€Å"King Andrew,† President Jackson left an indelible mark on history as a champion of the U. S. Constitution, defender of political democracy and—to some extent—personal liberty, and equality of economic opportunity.

Dante’s Inferno Notes

A huge and powerful warrior-king who virtually embodies defiance against his highest god, Capaneus is an exemplary blasphemer–with blasphemy understood as direct violence against God. Still, it is striking that Dante selects a pagan character to represent one of the few specifically religious sins punished in hell. Dante's portrayal of Capaneus in Inferno 14.43-72–his large size and scornful account of Jove striking him down with thunderbolts–is based on the Thebaid, a late Roman epic (by Statius) treating a war waged by seven kings against the city of Thebes.Capaneus' arrogant defiance of the gods is a running theme in the Thebaid, though Statius' description of the warrior's courage in the scenes leading up to his death reveals elements of Capaneus' nobility as well as his contempt for the gods. For instance, Capaneus refuses to follow his comrades in a deceitful military operation against the Theban forces under the cover of darkness, insisting instead on figh ting fair and square out in the open. Nevertheless, Capaneus' boundless contempt ultimately leads to his demise when he climbs atop the walls protecting the city and directly challenges the gods: â€Å"come now, Jupiter, and strive with all your flames against me! Or are you braver at frightening timid maidens with your thunder, and razing the towers of your father-in-law Cadmus?† (Thebaid 10.904-6).Recalling the similar arrogance displayed by the Giants at Phlegra (and their subsequent defeat), the deity gathers his terrifying weapons and strikes Capaneus with a thunderbolt. His hair and helmet aflame, Capaneus feels the fatal fire burning within and falls from the walls to the ground below. He finally lies outstretched, his lifeless body as immense as that of a giant. This is the image inspiring Dante's depiction of Capaneus as a large figure appearing in the defeated pose of the blasphemers, flat on their backs Ser Brunnetto Latino = Round Three- Violence Against NatureOne of the most important figures in Dante's life and in the Divine Comedy, Brunetto Latini is featured among the sodomites in one of the central cantos of the Inferno. Although the poet imagines Brunetto in hell, Dante-character and Brunetto show great affection and respect for one another during their encounter in Inferno 15.Brunetto (c. 1220 – 1294) was a prominent guelph who spent many years living in exile in Spain and France–where he composed his encyclopedic work, Trà ©sor (â€Å"Treasure†: Inf. 15.119-20)–before returning to Florence in 1266 and assuming positions of great responsibility in the commune and region (notary, scribe, consul, prior). Such was Brunetto's reputation that chroniclers of the time praised him as the â€Å"initiator and master in refining the Florentines.† While Brunetto's own writings–in terms of quality and significance–are far inferior to Dante's, he was perhaps the most influential promoter in the Midd le Ages of the essential idea (derived from the Roman writer Cicero) that eloquence–in both oral and written forms–is beneficial to society only when combined with wisdom.We understand from this episode that Brunetto played a major–if informal–part in Dante's education, most likely as a mentor through his example of using erudition and intelligence in the service of the city. Apart from the reputed frequency of sexual relations among males in this time and place, there is no independent documentation to explain Brunetto's appearance in Dante's poem among the sodomites. Brunetto was married with three–perhaps four–children. Many modern scholarly discussions of Dante's Brunetto either posit a substitute vice for the sexual one–linguistic perversion, unnatural political affiliations, a quasi-Manichean heresy–or emphasize a symbolic form of sodomy over the literal act (e.g., rhetorical perversion, a failed theory of knowledge, a pr oto-humanist pursuit of immortality).Geryon = Round Three- Violence Against Art(fraud) giant with three heads and bodies Geryon, merely described in Virgil's Aeneid as a â€Å"three-bodied shade† (he was a cruel king slain by Hercules), is one of Dante's most complex creatures. With an honest face, a colorful and intricately patterned reptilian hide, hairy paws, and a scorpion's tail, Geryon is an image of fraud (Inf. 17.7-27)–the realm to which he transports Dante and Virgil (circles 8 and 9). Strange as he is, Geryon offers some of the best evidence of Dante's attention to realism. The poet compares Geryon's upward flight to the precise movements of a diver swimming to the surface of the sea (Inf. 16.130-6), and he helps us imagine Geryon's descent by noting the sensation of wind rising from below and striking the face of a traveler in flight (Inf. 17.115-17).By comparing Geryon to a sullen, resentful falcon (Inf.  17.127-36), Dante also adds a touch of psychologic al realism to the episode: Geryon may in fact be bitter because he was tricked–when Virgil used Dante's knotted belt to lure the monster (Inf. 16.106-23)–into helping the travelers. Dante had used this belt–he informs us long after the fact (Inf. 16.106-8)–to try to capture the colorfully patterned leopard who impeded his ascent of the mountain in Inferno 1.31-3. Suggestively associated with the sort of factual truth so wondrous that it appears to be false (Inf. 16.124), Geryon is thought by some readers to represent the poem itself or perhaps a negative double of the poem. Pier della Vigna = Round Two- Violence Against ThemselvesLike Dante, Pier della Vigna (c. 1190 – 1249) was an accomplished poet–part of the â€Å"Sicilian School† of poetry, he wrote sonnets–and a victim of his own faithful service to the state. With a first-rate legal education and ample rhetorical talent, Pier rose quickly through the ranks of public servi ce in the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, from scribe and notary to judge and official spokesman for the imperial court of Frederick II. But his powers appear to have exceeded even these titles, as Pier claims to have had final say over Frederick's decisions (Inf. 13.58-63).While evidence of corruption casts some doubt on Pier's account of faithful service to the emperor, it is generally believed that he was indeed falsely accused of betraying Frederick's trust by envious colleagues and political enemies (Inf. 13.64-9). In this way, Pier's story recalls that of Boethius, author of the Consolation of Philosophy, a well known book in the Middle Ages (and a favorite of Dante's) recounting the fall from power of another talented individual falsely accused of betraying his emperor. Medieval commentators relate that Frederick, believing the charges against Pier (perhaps for plotting with the pope against the emperor), had him imprisoned and blinded. Unable to accept this wretched fate, Pier brutally took his life by smashing his head against the wall (perhaps of a church) or possibly by leaping from a high window just as the emperor was passing below in the street.Pier's name–Vigna means â€Å"vineyard†Ã¢â‚¬â€œundoubtedly made him an even more attractive candidate for Dante's suicide-trees. As an added part of the contrapasso for the suicides, the souls will not be reunited with their bodies at the Last Judgment but will instead hang their retrieved corpses on the trees (Inf.  13.103-8).MinotaurThe path down to the three rings of circle 7 is covered with a mass of boulders that fell–as Virgil explains (Inf. 12.31-45)–during the earthquake triggered by Christ's harrowing of hell. The Minotaur, a bull-man who appears on this broken slope (Inf. 12.11-15), is most likely a guardian and symbol of the entire circle of violence. Dante does not specify whether the Minotaur has a man's head and bull's body or the other way around (sources support both possibilities), but he clearly underscores the bestial rage of the hybrid creature. At the sight of Dante and Virgil, the Minotaur bites himself, and his frenzied bucking–set off by Virgil's mention of the monster's executioner–allows the travelers to proceed unharmed.Almost everything about the Minotaur's story–from his creation to his demise–contains some form of violence. Pasiphaà «, wife of King Minos of Crete, lusted after a beautiful white bull and asked Daedalus to construct a â€Å"fake cow† (Inf. 12.13) in which she could enter to induce the bull to mate with her; Daedalus obliged and the Minotaur was conceived. Minos wisely had Daedalus build an elaborate labyrinth to conceal and contain this monstrosity.To punish the Athenians, who had killed his son, Minos supplied the Minotaur with an annual sacrificial offering of seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls. When Ariadne (the Minotaur's half-sister: Inf. 12.20) fell in love wit h one of these boys (Theseus, Duke of Athens: Inf. 12.16-18), the two of them devised a plan to slay the Minotaur: Theseus entered the labyrinth with a sword and a ball of thread, which he unwound as he proceeded toward the center; having slain the Minotaur, Theseus was thus able to retrace his steps and escape the labyrinth CentaursThe Centaurs–men from the waist up with lower bodies of horses–guard the first ring of circle 7, a river of blood in which the shades of murderers and bandits are immersed to varying depths. Armed with bows and arrows, thousands of Centaurs patrol the bank of the river, using their weapons to keep the souls at their allotted depth (Inf. 12.73-5). In classical mythology, the Centaurs are perhaps best known for their uncouth, violent behavior: guests at a wedding, they attempted–their lust incited by wine–to carry off the bride and other women; a fierce battle ensued, described by Ovid in all its gory detail (Met. 12.210-535), i n which the horse-men suffered the heaviest losses. Two of the three Centaurs who approach Dante and Virgil fully earned this negative reputation.Pholus, whom Virgil describes as â€Å"full of rage† (Inf. 12.72), was one of the combatants at the wedding. Nessus, selected to carry Dante across the river in hell, was killed by Hercules–with a poisoned arrow–for his attempted rape of the hero's beautiful wife, Deianira, after Hercules had entrusted the Centaur to carry her across a river (Nessus avenged his own death: he gave his blood-soaked shirt to Deianira as a â€Å"love-charm,† which she–not knowing the shirt was poisoned–later gave to Hercules when she doubted his love [Inf. 12.67-9].) Chiron, the leader of the Centaurs, enjoyed a more favorable reputation as the wise tutor of both Hercules and Achilles (Inf. 12.71).Punishments of Each Ring -First Ring- For violence against neighbors. Made to boil in blood, and shot by arrows if they et out higher than they are deemed worthy. Fitting because those torturedmust boil in the blood they creted in life by violence.Chief sinner: alexander the great, who was violent against many of his countrymen as a tyrant.  · -Second Ring- For those violent against themselvesthey are turned into trees and are immobile. They are tortured and pecked at by Harpies. They will never be returned to their bodies because they didnt properly appreciate them in the first place.Chief Sinner: Pier della Vigna, who felt so ashamed by the lies of shcemers, took his own life.  · -Third Ring-For those violent against God. Three circles:  · Blasphamers – Just on hot sand · Sodomites – Also rained upon my fire  · Violent against art – also with purses around thier necksChief Sinner: Capaneus, Besieged Thebes. He is very defiant, still, and says hell shall never break him.Allusions  · Phlegethon-Literally a â€Å"river of fire† (Aen. 6.550-1), Phlegethon is the nam e Dante gives to the river of hot blood that serves as the first ring of  circle 7: spillers of blood themselves, violent offenders against others are submerged in the river to a level corresponding to their guilt. Dante does not identify the river–described in detail in Inferno 12.46-54 and 12.100-39–until the travelers have crossed it (Dante on the back of Nessus) and passed through the forest of the suicides. Now they approach a red stream flowing out from the inner circumference of the forest across the plain of sand (Inf. 14.76-84).After Virgil explains the common source of all the rivers in hell, Dante still fails to realize–without further explanation–that the red stream in fact connects to the broader river of blood that he previously crossed, now identified as the Phlegethon (Inf. 14.121-35).  · Polydorus-If Dante had believed what he read in the Aeneid, Virgil would not have had to make him snap one of the branches to know that the suicide-s hades and the trees are one and the same–this, at least, is what Virgil says to the wounded suicide-tree (Inf. 13.46-51). Virgil here alludes to the episode of the â€Å"bleeding bush† from Aeneid 3.22-68. The â€Å"bush† in this case is Polydorus, a young Trojan prince who was sent by his father (Priam, King of Troy) to the neighboring kingdom of Thrace when Troy was besieged by the Greeks.Polydorus arrived bearing a large amount of gold, and the King of Thrace–to whose care the welfare of the young Trojan was entrusted–murdered Polydorus and took possession of his riches. Aeneas unwittingly discovers Polydorus' unburied corpse when he uproots three leafy branches to serve as cover for a sacrificial altar: the first two times, Aeneas freezes with terror when dark blood drips from the uprooted branch; the third time, a voice–rising from the ground–begs Aeneas to stop causing harm and identifies itself as Polydorus. The plant-man expla ins that the flurry of spears that pierced his body eventually took the form of the branches that Aeneas now plucks. The Trojans honor Polydorus with a proper burial before leaving the accursed land.Old Man of Crete-Dante invents the story of the large statue of an old man–located in Mount Ida on the Island of Crete–for both practical and symbolic purposes ( Inf. 14.94-120). Constructed of a descending hierarchy of materials–gold head, silver arms and chest, brass midsection, iron for the rest (except one clay foot)–the statue recalls the various ages of humankind (from the golden age to the iron age: Ovid, Met. 1.89-150) in a pessimistic view of history and civilization devolving from best to worst. Dante's statue also closely  recalls the statue appearing in King Nebuchadnezzar's dream in the Bible; this dream is revealed in a vision to Daniel, who informs the king that the composition of the statue signifies a declining succession of kingdoms all inf erior to the eternal kingdom of God (Daniel 2:31-45).That the statue is off-balance–leaning more heavily on the clay foot–and facing Rome (â€Å"as if in a mirror†) probably reflects Dante's conviction that society suffers from the excessive political power of the pope and the absence of a strong secular ruler. Although the statue is not itself found in hell, the tears that flow down the crack in its body (only the golden head is whole) represent all the suffering of humanity and thus become the river in hell that goes by different names according to region: Acheron, Styx, Phlegethon, Cocytus (Inf. 14.112-20).Phaethon and Icarus-As he descends aboard Geryon through the infernal atmosphere, Dante recalls the classical stories of previous aviators (Inf. 17.106-14). Phaethon, attempting to confirm his genealogy as the son of Apollo, bearer of the sun, took the reins of the sun-chariot against his father's advice. Unable to control the horses, Phaethon scorched a la rge swath of the heavens; with the earth's fate hanging in the balance, Jove killed the boy with a thunderbolt (Ovid, Met. 1.745-79; 2.1-332).Daedalus (see Minotaur above), to escape from the island of Crete, made wings for himself and his son by binding feathers with thread and wax. Icarus, ignoring his father's warnings, flew too close to the sun; the wax melted and the boy crashed to the sea below (Met. 8.203-35). So heartbroken was Daedalus that he was unable to depict Icarus' fall in his carvings upon the gates of a temple he built to honor Apollo (Aen. 6.14-33). Experiencing flight for the first, and presumable only, time in his life–aboard a â€Å"filthy image of fraud,† no less–Dante understandably identifies with these two figures whose reckless flying led to their tragic deaths.

The power of an advertisement

The power of an advertisement lies on its ability to provoke interest from its audience. The moment the audience sees the ad, it should have the capability to lure its audience into becoming its willing consumers and this charm must be strong enough to create a loyal market. Nowadays, however, this has become increasingly difficult to do. With the consumers getting wiser and more critical of what they perceive in society and the environment, advertisers must create more innovative ways to reach them.Advertisements today need a more global reach in such a way that they have to touch every aspect of daily life making new forms of address more essential. The ad by the clothing company Diesel cleverly attains this. At first glance, it immediately demands the attention of the consumer. The mere idea of a young man kneeling to pray evokes a sense of conscious reflection. In a world where everything seems to point to materiality and gratification of worldly desires, it is an ingenious idea to use faith to capture attention.The young man, in casual Italian Diesel jeans and shirt having that look on his face indicating that of an intent plea, creatively portrays a notion of spirituality or probably the ironic lack of it. It appeals to its audience and highlights the role that faith play in society; its importance and meaning. At closer look, the man is apparently praying while on the treadmill. This adds to the intrigue because it symbolizes the culture of the youth and society in general. The words â€Å"live fast† on the bottom, with text effects and all, enhances the appeal of a fast paced world.The fact that the man wears a watch also assumes the idea of a society where time is important and critical use of it must be employed. The identity that the ad has established is easily assumed and related. Combined together, the ad exploits the irony between the fast moving lifestyle of people and the slow realm of reflection and prayer. It is rather difficult to rec oncile engaged prayer into a world that essentially inhibits it. With a lifestyle that seems to promote only stop and go, as to be seen carefully from the â€Å"pray runner† treadmill, the option of pausing for a moment in prayer and faith is unlikely.This striking image attempts to stand out among all the confusion that advertisements bring, and it succeeds. Jacobson et al discusses that most often, â€Å"ads speak directly to our innermost, unarticulated needs, proffering ineffective palliatives for real social and personal problems† (Jacobson et al, 1995). Ads may turn out to be ineffective solutions for real problems but the idea behind it is to create an avenue for deep thought and contemplation, a mode to capture the consumers’ inner reflections and influence and direct them towards the brand. In this the Diesel ad does well.The idea implied in the ad may be seen as to provide a social criticism while introducing a lifestyle geared towards consumerism. The idea commercial appeal and introduction of conflict creates a space for difference and being able to make the two meet means being able to conquer more diverse markets. As Giroux points out, those that shock people have become the most effective means of getting to the consumers. (Giroux, 1994) Moreover, as the ad is intended to promote to consumers its online stores; it effectively relays that fast lifestyles need fast ways of consuming.Thus, through the internet, Diesel provides the conveniences of â€Å"high speed shopping†. It works effectively as a target specific ad but it may be seen as an ad aimed for the general public as well. The impact that it implies and associates with the brand will linger on in the minds of its consumers, and it would not matter whether they purchase online or at the stores. The ad inculcates the idea of living fast on its audiences and thus the modern lifestyle of people today is held in close association to the brand.The ad strives to creat e a sense of relation, a connection to the modern consumers and it reinforces the idea that advertising ingratiates itself to the daily functions of modern life. (Vanderbilt, 1997) In all, the Diesel ad employs an ingenious way to address the consumers’ search for the meaning of public truths. It effectively captures the attention of its audience by creating an image directly intended to evoke human feelings of morals and principles.The ad uses irony to question society and the lifestyle that people currently have. It reminds people of their faith, values and inclinations but does so in a way that is not negative and condemning. At the same time it suggests a solution geared towards complimenting the fast paced world of society, successfully creating an impact for the Diesel brand. The ad becomes a powerful tool for Diesel to connect to its consumers and instill on them an enduring influence that would last even if the ad’s idea of prayer and faith had not.

Critically evaluate both the ontological and epistemological Essay

Critically evaluate both the ontological and epistemological assumptions which underpin one of the philosophical traditions disc - Essay Example The paper closes with a snippet review of the criticisms to the theory and possible reactions to these criticisms. Ontology defines the nature of something while epistemology defines the knowledge of something. The epistemological basis of postmodernism demonstrated in this paper is evolutionary. One of the ontological standing of postmodernism elucidated in this paper is social constructivist. This ontological standing moves that the status of entities depends on their involvement or lack of involvement in discourse. It holds that it is only entities constructed or produced through discourse that are real (Baldwin et. al. 2004, p.31). Postmodernism also uses a realistic ontology that uses two realms; discursive and extra-discursive realms. Here, postmodernism postulates that entities can exist in either realm with respect to its relationship with discourse. According to this ontological standing, all entities start from the extra-discursive realism before moving into the discursive realm. The transition into discursive realm occurs when an entity becomes the subject of discourse. In the extra-discursive realism, entities exist as existents and changes into beings when they get into the discursive realm (Crowther & Green 2004, p. 44). Postmodernism believes that identifying an entity is equivalent to changing it from existent to being. It follows that nothing that can be said about existents until they get into the discursive realm. The following sections evaluate these ontological and epistemological assumptions of postmodernism, more so, in organizational studies. Post-modernity is an object of both scorn and celebration in both cultural colloquial speech and intellectual discourses. Its repeated usage and persistent controversies have made it take up several forms. The ambiguity that surrounds the term emanates from people’s diverse usage of the term so as to suite their intention. Typically, though, it denotes the historical period that succeeds mode rnity. Modernity describes the period between the sixteenth and mid twentieth century (Aritz & Walker 2012, p. 41). It emerged from the death of medieval ignorance and superstition, and the rise of reason and truth. There are a number of elements that characterize modernity. Commentators of postmodernism differ on the basis of their favored side of the proponents of postmodernism. There are postmodernists who welcome and affirm change, albeit there have been critics who observed that the appropriation of this stance is questionable. Other postmodernists are skeptical about change and seek to see the change that challenges modern rationality (Crowther & Green 2004, p.45). Clearly, it is not plausible to dichotomize modernism and postmodernism. Rather, it is apt to appreciate their co-existence in a constitutive relationship that is mutual. The two need each other so as to come out as coherent and distinct. Postmodernism reshapes almost all aspects of life including, work, social rela tions, politics, communication, education and warfare. The transition period between the twentieth and the twenty first century saw the emergence of several developments. Industrial capitalism declined and gave way to a global information-age economy. This came with an inexorable expansion and consolidation of markets. There were also innovations that resulted from telecommunication technologies and computing. These innovations improved the exploitation of temporary opportunities

Cultural diversity in Modern China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cultural diversity in Modern China - Essay Example Communism is a political system where, property is owned communally and where economic, political, social systems are aimed at creating social order. Chinas Communist government views the introduction of new practices and cultures as a threat to this social order. Change is part of life, and human beings are supposed to adapt to change. It is necessary for the people of china to adapt to the new world. For example, there is no political tolerance. The people political views are not considered by the government, and any sign of a political struggle is met with a lot of hostility. In the 21st century, this should not be happening. If not changed, this grip of the nation by the communist government will result in the separation of the people of china behind. However, various factors are exposing the Chinese people to the entire world thus diversifying their life and cultural practices (Tienery 15). 1) The Olympics Participation of China in international sports has been a major factor in exposing Chinese people to different cultures. The fact that the government wants to ensure that the Republic of China is viewed as a leading power in every aspect of life, it allows the country to participate in almost all international sports events. These events include the Olympics, world cups and athletics competitions. According to the United Nations Office for Sport Development and Peace (UNOSDP), sports activities promote cultural diversity since they incorporate fair play, teamwork, respecting opponents, and self discipline as values of good sportsmanship (Nauright & Parrish 11). Through international sport events like the Olympics, the Chinese people have been exposed to different cultures. This is through interactions directly in the games by the players with other participants from the other countries. The players interact with other participants in the Olympics where they learn about new things, which they take back home introducing them to other people. For example, p layers take back home eating habits that they have learnt from the country where the Olympic Games are being held. Another way that sports activities promote cultural diversity in China is through the interaction of fans from china and those from other countries. While supporting their country in the Olympic Games, Chinese people get to know about different cultures as they talk with fans from other countries. Here, they form strong friendships and bonds where they teach each other about their cultures. On learning these cultures, Chinese fans go back home and spread the new cultures where people assimilate them. For example, the mode of dressing among Chinese people has changed through interaction with others during Olympic Games and other Spots events 2) The Tibet Movement This is a movement that struggles to fight for the political and economic independence of Tibet. Tibet is a region which is included as a territory of the Republic of China. The movement strives at achieving tot al separation from the Republic of China. The movement is supported internationally mainly the United States of America (USA), India, and a number f countries in Europe. For example, the International Tibet Independence movement is an organization that supports this movement. It was formed in March 18th 1995 in the United States

Marketing led management(Apple's iphone) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Marketing led management(Apple's iphone) - Essay Example The study will be focused upon the UK based company Telefonica,popularly known as O2.It has been in venture with Apple to promote iPhone in the UK market.The brand O2 caters the services in the telecommunication sector offering integrated mobile,fixed and broadband services in the UK,Germany,Ireland,Slovakia and Czech Republic In the year 2007, Apple launched its product iPhone with O2 in the UK market. Apple iPhone was offered in different tariffs with variety of handsets in the UK market (Guardian News and Media Limited, 2011). In order to launch iPhone in the European market, Apple needs to have a contract with the service provider. They had options in the European market. There were UK’s O2, France’s Orange and Germany’s T-Mobile. There were rumours regarding the revenue sharing percentage deal between Apple and others. After the plethora of negotiations, the UK’s O2 was finalised for the deal to market Apple’s product . Strategic Analysis The d eal was finalised between the UK’s O2 and Apple for the distribution of the Apple’s iPhone in the UK market. The deal concentrated upon the revenue sharing percentage that O2 would provide to Apple from the iPhone sales. The significance of the deal to O2 can be justified by the strategic analysis through the SWOT evaluation. SWOT Analysis Strengths O2 is known as the successful network operator in the UK market. The awareness of the brand is huge among the target customer group. There are more than 300 stores of O2 in the UK market (Franchise Development Services Ltd, 2011). Telefonica has been operating for more than 85 years in the UK telecommunication industry and has a consistency growth rate and is acquainted with their target consumers’ need and wants. By the year 2009 it had about 265 million customers operating in 25 countries. Telefonica provides integrated ICT solutions to all segments of customers that can be demonstrated in a graphical format below. Telefonica has diverse operations and generates revenue from different market operations, which build up a strong financial position of the company (Telefonica, 2010). (Telefonica, 2010). Telefonica has been able to increase its consumer base by 2009 and it is still on the rise. The company achieved a 9 % growth in the number of consumers by the end of 2009. The expansion in the consumer base will generate more revenues for the company. With the increasing number of consumers there is more possibility of increase in the sales of iPhone. This will generate more revenues for Apple (Telefonica Europe plc, 2009). Apple is one of the leading brands in the global market and is known for its iPhone. The newly launched product of Apple is the ‘iPhone 4’ in the UK market. O2 provides maximum advantage to every class of users at an affordable rate (PR Wall Street, 2010). The mobile network of Telefonica covers 99% of the UK populace. O2’s 3G network covers over 80% of the UK’s populace. The best selling device of Telefonica O2 UK is the iPhone that has more than 2 million sales (Telefonica, 2010). Weaknesses The UK consumers had the facility of 3G phones before the launch of the iPhone in the UK market. They were already using the 3G technology. There were problems related to the offering of the call rates. The call rates of the iPhone deal allowed 200 inclusive minutes for ?35 whereas the competitors provided 750 inclusive minutes with a free phone. The consumers were apprehensive about the contract related to iPhone. The main concern was regarding the up-gradation of the phone, the device itself as it has non-removable battery and limited battery life. The consumers wanted to upgrade their iPhone 3G as it faced the problem of battery life. This problem was a concern for Telefonica O2 UK against their endeavour to increase the sales and get

White paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

White paper - Assignment Example EPA primarily covers legislations for pollution in air, water, land, management of hazardous waste and protection of engendered species. EPA provides public awareness campaigns as management at such a huge level is not possible without individual participation (Simonsen, 2010). For air, a limit is imposed on the exposure of certain air pollutants in all areas. EPA can also ban a certain air pollutant from emission like from chemical plants, mills and utilities. By limiting exposure of dangerous air pollutants, EPA helps keep the air clean and livable for all creatures and human beings. EPA takes responsibility of cleaning up land or underground waste that has a threat on the environment. Mostly land is cleaned in industrial areas where wastes are dumped and they pose threat to living beings in that specific vicinity. In order to keep the land free of dangerous chemicals and providing a healthy diet, pesticides are registered and tolerance of each pesticide is set for usage. To monito r toxic substances in the environment EPA conducts tests and gathers relevant data for future analysis other than controlling its exposure. Waste disposal and recycling of it is also regulated by the EPA. Water is treated for safe and healthy usage and water waste management is also conducted to ensure it remains pollution free. EPA has also set regulations to manage waste or release of hazardous material by accident in emergency conditions. Another category termed cross cutting issues is dealt by EPA. It covers several aspects ranging from environmental justice to climatic change. To make sure the above mentioned regulations are actually followed, EPA follows a compliance process. Compliance department assists local bodies by providing tools and training to combat unexpected situations. They also impose penalties to businesses that fail to comply with the environmental safety regulations. During their audit procedure they also reduce or completely eliminate penalties

Government and Business (ECONOMICS) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Government and Business (ECONOMICS) - Case Study Example In order to fully understand and explore the question of whether Microsoft has the monopoly over the personal computer operating system or not, one must understand the dynamics behind the market structure of monopoly besides understanding what anti-competitive practices have been employed by Microsoft to capture the market and gain the leading position in operating systems market in the world. Further, it is also critical to understand that the question of Microsoft monopoly shall also be viewed in a broader perspective of antitrust laws and regulations and the perceived role of government in creating legislative environment which discourages such practices. This paper will attempt to understand and explore the question of whether the Microsoft has the monopoly power in the PC operating systems market in the world. And if yes, did Microsoft maintain this through using anticompetitive practices. "Microsoft Corporation develops, manufactures, licenses and supports a range of software products for computing devices." (NY TIMES). This description of Microsoft virtually covers everything for which the firm is famous for. Technically, Microsoft is a software developer which develops different software such as operating systems to run the personal computer machines, Office suites including helping to accomplish different tasks such as word processing, spreadsheet analyses, presentations etc. It is however, critical to mention that Microsoft has successfully developed itself as a firm with diversified portfolio of software as well as hardware products. It not only has huge presence in software market but also manufactures and develops Xbox- a gaming portal and Zune- a new MP3 player. Established in 1975 as Microsoft by Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen, the new company was initially established in order to provide DOS based operating system to IBM's newly developed personal computer. Microsoft developed its first Windows bases operating system during 1983. This new operating system was potentially aimed at removing the deficiencies of the old MS- DOS and provide a more flexible and robust operating system which can cater to the needs of different users according to their own requirements. It is critical to note that at the time of introduction of this new Windows based operating system which worked on the Graphical User Interface (GUI) basis, Apple Computers was already in the market and was developing its own operating system to be sold with its own brand of personal computers. As the market for personal computers market soared, the demand for the Microsoft's operating system increased because of its relative ease and platform free nature which allowed Microsoft Windows to run on any personal computer machine. The era of 1990's saw an unprecedented growth in personal computers market and with the introduction of Microsoft Windows 95, Microsoft virtually started its journey towards dominating the operating systems market in the world. The rapid increase in the demand for personal computers and relative ease and inexpensive nature of MS Windows software made a very explosive combination for users to get a comprehensive package. What is however, crit

Role that race and ethnicity played in the evolution of the American Essay

Role that race and ethnicity played in the evolution of the American working class from the Spanish-American War to the eve of the Second World War - Essay Example In Spanish-American war, Cuba and Philippines were involved because these countries were the colonies of the Spain. American government helped fight the wars of these two countries against their colonizer which led to their victories. Having won the wars against Spain, America gained control over these countries and expanded its interest from Latin America to the Pacific. American economic interest also grew due to newfound alliance with the countries involved. It also opened doors for the Americans to trade with the other nations adjacent to these countries which mean free market and free taxes for the American capitalists and wider international markets. American economy soared high because of these reasons and American capitalist started looking for cheap workers for their growing businesses. Import and export businesses of basic commodities such as spices, wheat corn, cotton and other basic needs began to grow. After the war, middle class or working class started to come in Ameri ca due to expanding businesses and industries. Migration of Filipinos and Latin Americans started to grow due to open ports between America and countries of alliance. It has not stopped since then, and became the main composition of American working class today. Before the war, majority of the working class in America were African-American but after the war immigrant workers started to pour in from different parts of the globe. They saw America as a good opportunity to seek greener pastures and improve their lives that cannot be attained in their native country. Spanish-American war and the Second World War had a great impact on the American economy. Wider international market, rise in import export of basic commodities, more job opportunities and a promise of a better life were the reasons why immigrant workers started to flock in America. Aside from this American government had gained so much advantage in terms of political and economic aspects. Today American working

Information about current influences on planning Essay Example for Free

Information about current influences on planning Essay 1. Every child matter influences planning and provision of learning opportunities The National Curriculum is the starting point for planning a school curriculum that meets the specific needs of individuals and groups of pupils. This statutory inclusion statement on providing effective learning opportunities for all pupils outlines how teachers can modify, as necessary, the National Curriculum programmes of study to provide all pupils with relevant and appropriately challenging work at each key stage. Child care act 2006 influences planning and provision of learning opportunities this act states that early years providers have a duty to implement the EYFS. We do this by meeting the learning and development requirements when doing our weekly planning and we also comply with the welfare requirements. Child care act does this to ensure that it is very important to follow rules and regulations to ensure that the children are at the right stages of development in life. SEN code of practice 2002 influences planning and provision of learning opportunities areas covered include the definition of special educational needs, parental responsibility and working partnership with parents. The code also looks at: involving pupils in assessment and decision-making; provision in the Early Years; primary and secondary education; statutory assessment of children under compulsory school age; and the role of the special educational needs coordinator. (2013) Special Educational Needs: Code of Practice. The SEN code do this to ensure that disability children do not miss out on key learning development and also to make sure that they do not feel left out or intimidated. Equality act 2010 influences planning and provision of learning opportunities this act makes sure that no one gets treated differently to anybody else this helps planning and provision because it makes sure that staff have to make sure that when they plan a activity or a lesson plan it’s got to be able to involve everyone and make sure that it suits all individual needs. ‘’ Objectives must be appropriate, focusing on the most pressing equality  gaps.’’ 2. Inspectors found that where assessment was underdeveloped it tended to focus more on children’s welfare or their interests, rather than their learning. Self-evaluation and action-planning was too often seen by childcare providers as something that had to be done for Ofsted rather than a means of improving outcome for children. However, outcomes for children were no better than satisfactory in any of the providers where self-evaluation was inadequate (2011) Press release: A good start for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Ofsted make sure that it is seen to be important to plan different types of learning opportunities for the children as this helps to develop the children’s skills in a variety of way. For example ofsted inspect schools by sitting in on different subjects and different teacher’s lessons, they do this to make sure that everyone is doing it as correctly as they aspect to see. 3. The curriculum frameworks like the EYFS influence planning and provision of learning opportunities. The term curriculum is used to describe everything children do, see, hear or feel in their setting, both planned and unplanned. The Early Years Foundation Stage is the statutory framework against which providers of early education are judged, and includes requirements for the provision of young children’s learning and development, and welfare. The report focuses particularly on two areas of learning: personal, social and emotional development; and communication, language and literacy skills. 4. Learning through landscapes supports families in the early years by showing children the outdoors and learning them new activities such as gardening and discovering nature with their own opinions and physically learning by touch and seeing things from their point of view. I believe the work of Learning through Landscapes is needed even more than ever. I hope  you will share our passion for giving children opportunities for discovery and learning that will illuminate their entire lives. Attenborough.D (2005) Learning through Landscapes.   EPPSE (3-14) supports families in the early years by making sure those children do get assessed at the age of 3 before they go to pre-school and then the child will be monitored until they do enter school. This helps by knowing what the child abilities are being noticed and noted. ‘’ More than 3,000 children were assessed at the start of pre-school around the age of 3 and their development was monitored until they entered school a round the age of 5.’’ Leading education and social research (Updated 2013) Effective Pre-School, Primary Secondary Education (EPPSE).   Primary and Secondary Education 3-14 (EPPSE 3-14 project) a major longitudinal study investigating the influence of pre-school, primary and secondary school on children’s cognitive and social/behavioural development in England. The transitions sub-study of more than 500 children and families sheds light on current transition practices and highlights what helps and hinders a successful transition. Evangelou.M (2008) Effective Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education 3-14 Project (EPPSE 3-14).   Neighbourhood nurseries support families in the early years by making sure that families can get to close nursery without struggling and panicking that they cannot reach a nursery which prevents the child even going into nursery. ‘’The Neighbourhood Nurseries Initiative (NNI) aims to expand childcare provision in the 20% most disadvantaged areas of Englan d by creating 45,000 new day-care places for children aged nought to five.’’

Models of Inclusion in Education

Models of Inclusion in Education Introduction This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all. Main Body Defining Inclusion Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term inclusion via different definitions. This explains the various ways inclusion can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, inclusion will be examined as an educational issue and the terms inclusive school, inclusive system, inclusive education are used alternatively. As such an issue, it could be claimed that inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of differenceIt requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to inclusion estimated as an educational aspec t. Models of inclusion Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A. According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professionals guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the students self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms. Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997). In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmates support is also available to the child with SEN through the study- buddy system. As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child. Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework. The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed. The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process. The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method. The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some visits to the regular one. To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professionals duty but a whole teams responsibility. The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the heads assistance. Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness By proclaiming that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs and that education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on h3 educational, social and moral grounds (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school. Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individuals perceptions, which come as its consequences. In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professionals judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to cure but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use normalization alternatively to equal treatment forgetting that equal: does not always mean same. (Vlachou 1997). Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression. Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is normal or abnormal, superior or inferior. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one. What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education. Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion. Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupils differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints (Zelaieta 2004: 43). A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children. Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of warrior parents through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children as different and as belonging elsewhere (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents attitudes. The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the childs attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school e nvironment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers limited knowledge about disability and other parents not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001). Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program. Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks. The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnels lack of knowledge, childs limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers. The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from peoples appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose. Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings and facilities suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupils needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called Harbour Community. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier. Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues. The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled peoples life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as deviant. Finally, teachers opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education. On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice. Overcoming the barriers Solutions Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the societys function by letting disabled peoples voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers and peers attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as circles of friends or buddy-systems (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit. These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCOs 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupils needs, differences and abilities and st udents are willing to respond to that pedagogy. This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which ones abilities will accommodate others needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007). Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students w ith special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000). After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework. The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed. The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staffs knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staffs and parents opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyones duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion. Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each others knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004). Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003). Collaborative engagement, value others opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion. In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staffs expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p

Custodial Deaths and Human Rights Issues

Custodial Deaths and Human Rights Issues Whenever we go through daily newspapers or news on broadcast media or internet, one of the most common topics we can find is deaths in custody. This is something that we get to hear about most often from people surrounding us, and it has been happening for quite a long time, not only in a particular country or region, but in the whole world. However, many people is dying in custody each year. The deaths while in custody remains a very controversial topic as it is believed that the main reasons of these deaths are kept in darkness from the world.  [1]  These deaths could be a regular subject for the ones in charge of the custody, but bring a major issue in the limelight which is the gross violation of human rights. According to the Joint Committee on Human Rights (JCHR), When the state takes away a persons liberty, it assumes full responsibility for protecting their human rights. The most fundamental of these is the right to life.  [2]  As we go through this paper, we will dis cuss more about custodial deaths and its impact on international law and human rights. Custodial deaths are referred to those deaths, while in custody of the police, prison service, or other authorities. The causes of these deaths or we can say that the custody authorities are often accused of abuse, cover-ups, racism and neglect.  [3]  Some examples of custodial deaths are Operation Clean Heart by the government of Bangladesh where a minimum of 32 people died; death of about 100 prisoners in United States custody in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2002; and at least 650 people were killed in Jamaica by the police officers in 1999 which were all unlawful killings, but none of them were convicted since then.  [4]   Human Rights: Human rights are rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled.  [5]  These rights protect us from severe political, legal, and social abuses. A few examples of human rights are the right to freedom of religion, the right to a fair trial when charged with a crime, the right not to be tortured, the right to engage in political activity, and the right to life.  [6]  All these rights are protected by law for the wellbeing of a society. These rights, if violated, can lead to severe consequences or penalties if proved guilty to the sovereign authority. Human Rights against Custodial Deaths: The most fundamental part of human rights is the right to life.  [7]  This type of human rights which protect people detained by the State falls under the law of Human Rights Act 1998. A death penalty or even custodial deaths violate these rights according to many human rights activists from around the world. A state ensures protection of its people enforced by law. They have more responsibility about a persons protection when they take them into custody in doubts of unlawful acts. Therefore, whenever a person dies in custody, it raises a major human rights issue. Besides people who are serving whole-life sentences, many others die in custody. These custodial deaths maybe caused due to natural causes or diseases, attacks by other prisoners, self-infliction, third-degree tortures while in remand, and many other reasons. Many of those people who die in custody are held on remand in either police custody or prison for doubts of unlawful acts, and are convicted of no criminal offence. These are serious violations of human rights as every individual has the right to life, which is protected by the State and these deaths are not enforced by law. Custodial Death and Human Rights Concerns around the World: In Bangladesh, a huge battalion of Bangladesh Rifles (BDR) killed more than seventy army officers and others dead in February 25 and 26, 2009. After that, most soldiers of Bangladesh Rifles were held in prisons as suspects for the massacre. More than a thousand soldiers including twenty civilians were detained, and the others are still in the police custody. From a statement of the Bangladesh Rifles on April 23, 2009, it was said that Sixteen detainees have died in custody four from suicide, six from heart attacks, and six from other diseases.  [8]  But Brad Adams, Asia Director at Human Rights Watch  [9]  , said that he couldnt find a solid reason for which the detainees have committed suicide, and thus, he has urged the government to take immediate actions to stop such deaths in custody. From credible sources in Bangladesh, reports were found by the Human Rights Watch on torture of detainees while they were in custody. One of the suspects told that he was tortured with electric shocks for seven days by the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB)  [10]  . After the death of another suspect, a family member said that he was in good health before taken into custody and has no reason of sudden death. In a medical report of a dead suspect, wounds of torture were inflicted, which the authority denied by saying that the wounds may have been caused while they were trying to escape following the rebellion. Adams said that these explanations are not credible and that torture is a regular investigation technique in Bangladesh and killing of detainees in custody is an endemic problem. The detained suspects have been denied access to family and lawyers in most cases. In Vietnam, Human Rights Watch reported that they have received nineteen documents of brutality cases in twelve months till September 2010, which resulted in deaths of fifteen people. Deaths in custody were reported from major cities in Vietnam which has provoked the public protestant in the country and raised serious concerns. In a few cases, the detainees died due to massive beatings while in custody of the police or civil defense force, and in other cases, people died in public areas where the police used excessive forces. In many cases, detainees are taken into custody and killed for minor violations of law. In June 30, 2010, a person died in police custody after being detained following a dispute with his mother. In another case, which was on July 23, 2010, a man was arrested for riding a motorbike without a helmet. He was then taken is custody for questioning and hours later, it was reported that he died. This has raised serious concerns in Vietnam for such a custodial death. In all these nineteen incidents in just twelve months time, not a single involved police officer was convicted by the local court for their actions. There have been major protests by the media as the government has high restrictions and control over their local press. Only a few police officers have been detained or suspended, which was caused due to media exposure of the incidents and severe protests from the public. Unless the government shows serious concerns regarding such human rights issues, it is very uncertain that such killings can ever be stopped. In Afghanistan, a soldier named Jamal Nasser died in March 16, 2003 while in custody of the United States Army.  [11]  After eighteen months of his death, it was reported that his death attributed to a kidney infection. Later on, investigations found that the cause was just a fiction. According to Senator Patrick Leahy, The detainee, Jamal Naseer, died in March 2003, allegedly after weeks of torture by American soldiers. Because the  Special Forces  unit that reportedly controlled the detention facility failed to report the death, it was never investigated. This incident is very troubling on its own, but, like so many other incidents we have discovered, it points to a much larger problem. The  U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command  received a tip about Naseers death earlier this year, but could not investigate the matter due to a lack of information.  [12]  An army detective at Bagram Airbase told the LA Times that there are no records for which they werent able to conclude the investigation process. Human Rights Law: There are many human rights law assigned by the sovereign authority for the well being of a society by ensuring the safety of every individual. The law which concerns with the deaths in custody is Article 2 of The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), The Human Rights Act 1998, which states that: 1. Everyones right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law. 2. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary: (a) in defence of any person from unlawful violence; (b) in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained; (c) in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.  [13]   Article 2 clearly provides that the state should not deprive you of your life, except in very limited circumstances.  [14]  According to the article, whenever someone is killed by a police, army or prison officer, the incident will always link to right to life. In such a circumstance, investigations will be called and a failure in the investigation at the hands of a state official is likely to be a breach of Article 2. Conclusion: Many people have been killed and are still being killed while in custody of the state officials in almost every country. The state is responsible for the protection of its each and every single individual and the ones violating laws shall be detained or punished after the consequences has been sanctioned by the higher authority. But any kind of custodial deaths are unlawful as every human has the right to life, and they cannot be punished unless they are proved guilty. Custodial deaths fall under the Human Rights Act 1998, Article 2 which states that custodial deaths should be investigated and if not done, then it would be a breach of law. After studying this paper, we are able to conclude that custodial deaths have become a global human rights issue and these deaths are gross violation of Human Rights. The state must take all necessary steps in order to prevent deaths in custody, ensure that every individual is well protected by law, and only the ones proved guilty are punished or d etained. Success in preventing will lead to the well being of the society.

Humans Effect on Nature in the 20th Century Essay -- Essays Papers

Humans Effect on Nature in the 20th Century Nuclear Waste With the dawn of the nuclear age in the early 1900’s, came a problem that became a force to be reckoned with. Its name is nuclear waste. This is yet another harmful side effect brought on by man’s drive to find the cheapest and most powerful source of energy technology has to offer. Nuclear waste, ranging from harmful radiation caused by nuclear meltdown to unused military weaponry, has been a serious issue in the past few decades, and is a perfect example of humans effect on nature. Many would argue that the history of nuclear energy and nuclear waste began in 1898 when Marie Curie discovered two radioactive elements; polonium and radium.1 The nuclear scene was relatively quiet until 1838, when a German scientist, Otto Hahn was successful in demonstrating nuclear fission.2 This set off an alert that reached the ears of Theodore Roosevelt, who was President of the United States at the time. With the threat of Germany making a nuclear bomb, the nuclear race was on. The Manhattan Project was launched in an effort to secretly build a nuclear bomb before the Germans. The most commonly known events in nuclear waste history were the near catastrophic meltdowns at Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania, and Chernobyl power plant in The Soviet Union. Radiation leakage was minimal at Three Mile Island, however, Chernobyl experienced the release of massive quantities of radioactive materials accompanied by a dangerous fire.3 People from all nations came in contact with radioactive particles which the wind blew around the Earth. These two events sparked nuclear awareness by the general public as well as governmental programs that... ...only aid in cleaning up and preventing nuclear waste, but also to inform and educate the public. Until more effective methods of nuclear waste management are devised, the energy hungry U.S. will have to put up with the environmental parasite it has created. Notes 1. "Curie, Marie" Funk and Wagnalls 27 Mar. 1999 2. "Hahn, Otto" Funk and Wagnalls 3. Meshkati, "Chernobyl" 27 March, 1999 4. Konrad B. Kauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology (London: Chapman and Hall, 1988) 10-11 5. "mixed waste" 28 March, 1999 6. "mixed waste" 28 March, 1999 7. "Yucca Mountain Homepage" 28 March, 1999

Puritan Depravity and Distrust in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay

Puritan Depravity and Distrust in Young Goodman Brown   Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Puritan doctrine taught that all men are totally depraved and require constant self-examination to see that they are sinners and unworthy of God's Grace. Because man had broken the Covenant of Works when Adam had eaten from the Tree of Knowledge, God offered a new covenant to Abraham's people which held that election to Heaven was merely a possibility.   In the Puritan religion, believers dutifully recognized the negative aspects of their humanity rather than the gifts they possessed. This shadow of distrust would have a direct influence on early American New England and on many of its historians and writers, one of which was Nathaniel Hawthorne. The influence of Puritan religion, culture and education along with the setting of his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts, is a common topic in Nathaniel Hawthorne's works.   In particular, Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown" allows the writer to examine and perhaps provide commentary on not only the Salem of his own time but also the Salem of his ancestors.   Growing up, Hawthorne could not escape the influence of Puritan society, not only from residing with his father's devout Puritan family as a child but also due to Hawthorne's study of his own family history.   The first of his ancestors, William Hathorne, is described in Hawthorne's "The Custom House" as arriving with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 "with his Bible and his sword" (26). A further connection can also be seen in his more notable ancestor John Hathorne, who exemplified the level of zealousness in Puritanism with his role as persecutor in the Salem Witch Trials.  Ã‚   The study of his own family from the es tablishment of the Bay Colony to the Second Gre... ... 40 (First Quarter 1994):   67-88. Grayson, Robert C.   "Curdled Milk for Babes: The Role of the Catechism in 'Young Goodman Brown.'"   The Nathaniel Hawthorne Review 16 (Spring 1990): 1-5. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "Young Goodman Brown." 1835. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Lexington: Heath, 1944. 2129-38. Levin, David.   What happened in Salem?   2nd ed.   New York: Harcourt, Brace and World Inc, 1967. Mather, Cotton.   "A Discourse on Witchcraft."   Levin 96-105. Murfin, Ross C.   "Introduction: The Biographical and Historical Background."   Case Studies in Contemporary Criticism: Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Scarlet Letter."   Boston: St. Martin's Press, 1991.   3-18. Shuffelton, Frank.   "Nathaniel Hawthorne and the Revival Movement."   The American Transcendental Quarterly 44 (Fall 1979):   311-321.